Atari 2600 Programming for Newbies
Session 5: Memory Architecture
By Andrew Davie (adapted by Duane Alan Hahn, a.k.a. Random Terrain)
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Page Table of Contents
Original Session
Let's have a look at the memory architecture of the '2600, and how the 6502 communicates with the TIA and other parts of the '2600 hardware.
The 6502 communicates with the TIA by writing, and sometimes reading values to/from TIA 'registers'. These registers are 'mapped' to certain fixed addresses in the 6502's addressing range.
In its simplest form, the 6502 is able to address 65536 (2^16) bytes of memory, each with a unique address. Each 16-bit address ultimately directly controls the 'wires' on a 16-bit buspathway to memory, selecting the appropriate byte of memory to read/write. However, the '2600 CPU, the 6507, is only able to directly access 2^13 bytes (8192 bytes) of memory. That is, only 13 of the 16 address lines are actually connected to physical memory.
This is our first introduction to 'memory mapping' and mirroring. Given that the 6507 can only access addresses using the low 13 bits of an address, what happens if bit 14, 15, or 16 of an address are set? Where does the 6507 go to look for its data? In fact, bits 14,15, and 16 are totally ignored—only the low 13 bits are used to identify the address of the byte to read/write. Consider the valid addresses which can be formed with just 13 bits of data…
from %0000000000000 to %1111111111111
= from $0000 to $1FFF
Note: $0000 is the same as 0 is the same as %000 is the same as %0000000000. 0 is 0. In the same vein, any number with leading zeros is the same as that number without zeros. I often see people writing $02 when they could just write $2, or better yet … 2. Your assembler doesn't care how numbers are written. It's the value of numbers that matter. So use the most readable form of numbers, where it makes sense. Remember, 0 is 0000 is %0 is $000
So we've just written down the minimum and maximum addresses that can be formed with 13 bits. This gives us our memory 'footprint'—the absolute extremes of memory which can be accessed by the 6507 through a 13-bit address.
This next idea is important, so make sure you understand! All communication between the CPU and hardware (be it ROM, RAM, I/O, the TIA, or other) is through reads and/or writes to memory locations. Read that again.
The consequences of this are that some of that memory range (between $0 and $1FFF) must contain our RAM, some must contain our ROM (program), and some must presumably allow us to communicate with the TIA and whatever other communication/control systems the machine has. And that's exactly how it works.
We have just 128 bytes of RAM on the '2600. That RAM 'lives' at addresses $80 - $FF. It's always there, so any write to location $80 (128 decimal) will actually be to the first byte of RAM. Likewise, any read from those locations is actually reading from RAM.
So we've just learned that the 6507 addresses memory using 13 bits to uniquely identify the memory location, and that some areas of that memory 'range' are devoted to different uses. The area from $80 to $FF is our 128 bytes of RAM!
Don't worry too much about understanding this yet, but TIA registers are mapped in the memory addresses 0 to $7F, RIOT (a bit of '2600 hardware we'll look at later) from $280 - $2FF (roughly), and our program is mapped into address range $1000 to $1FFF (a 4K size).
Note: 1K = 1024 bytes = $400 bytes = %10000000000 bytes.
In essence, then, to change the state of the TIA we just have to write values to TIA 'registers' which look to the 6507 just like any other memory location and which 'live' in addresses 0 to $7F. To the 6502 (and I'll revert to that name now we've emphasized that the 6507 only has 13 address lines as opposed to the 6502's 16 and all other things are equal) a read or write of a TIA register is just the same as a read or write to any other area of memory. The difference is, the TIA is 'watching' those locations, and when you write to that memory, you're really changing the TIA 'registers'—and potentially changing what it draws on a scanline.
So now we know how to communicate with the TIA, and where it 'lives' in our memory footprint. And we know how to communicate with RAM, and where it 'lives'. Even our program in ROM is really just another area in our memory 'map'—the program that runs from a cartridge is accessed by the 6502 just by reading memory locations. In effect, the cartridge 'plugs-in' to the 6502 memory map. Let's have a quick look at what we know so far about memory…
|
Address Range |
Function |
|
$0000 - $007F |
TIA registers |
|
$0080 - $00FF |
RAM |
|
$0200 - $02FF |
RIOT registers |
|
$1000 - $1FFF |
ROM |
We'll keep it simple for now—though you may be wondering what 'lives' in the gaps in that map, between the bits we know about. The short answer is 'not much'—so let's not worry about those areas for now. Just remember that when we're accessing TIA registers, we're really accessing memory from 0 to $7F, and when we access RAM, we're accessing memory from $80 to $FF, etc.
Now that we understand HOW the 6502 communicates with the TIA, one of our next steps will be to start to examine the registers of the TIA and what happens when you modify them. It won't be long now before we start to understand how it all works. Stay tuned.
I might give up writing "next time we'll talk about…" because I seem to end up covering something completely different.
Other Assembly Language Tutorials
Be sure to check out the other assembly language tutorials and the general programming pages on this web site.
Amazon: Atari 2600 Programming (#ad)
Amazon: 6502 Assembly Language Programming (#ad)
Atari 2600 Programming for Newbies (#ad)
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Session 2: Television Display Basics
Sessions 3 & 6: The TIA and the 6502
Session 5: Memory Architecture
Session 7: The TV and our Kernel
Session 9: 6502 and DASM - Assembling the Basics
Session 14: Playfield Weirdness
Session 15: Playfield Continued
Session 16: Letting the Assembler do the Work
Sessions 17 & 18: Asymmetrical Playfields (Parts 1 & 2)
Session 20: Asymmetrical Playfields (Part 3)
Session 22: Sprites, Horizontal Positioning (Part 1)
Session 22: Sprites, Horizontal Positioning (Part 2)
Session 23: Moving Sprites Vertically
Session 25: Advanced Timeslicing
How to get started writing 6502 assembly language. Includes a JavaScript 6502 assembler and simulator.
Atari Roots by Mark Andrews (Online Book)
This book was written in English, not computerese. It's written for Atari users, not for professional programmers (though they might find it useful).
Machine Language For Beginners by Richard Mansfield (Online Book)
This book only assumes a working knowledge of BASIC. It was designed to speak directly to the amateur programmer, the part-time computerist. It should help you make the transition from BASIC to machine language with relative ease.
The 6502 Instruction Set broken down into 6 groups.
Nice, simple instruction set in little boxes (not made out of ticky-tacky).
The Second Book Of Machine Language by Richard Mansfield (Online Book)
This book shows how to put together a large machine language program. All of the fundamentals were covered in Machine Language for Beginners. What remains is to put the rules to use by constructing a working program, to take the theory into the field and show how machine language is done.
An easy-to-read page from The Second Book Of Machine Language.
6502 Instruction Set with Examples
A useful page from Assembly Language Programming for the Atari Computers.
Continually strives to remain the largest and most complete source for 6502-related information in the world.
By John Pickens. Updated by Bruce Clark.
Guide to 6502 Assembly Language Programming by Andrew Jacobs
Below are direct links to the most important pages.
Goes over each of the internal registers and their use.
Gives a summary of whole instruction set.
Describes each of the 6502 memory addressing modes.
Describes the complete instruction set in detail.
HTMLified version.
Nick Bensema's Guide to Cycle Counting on the Atari 2600
Cycle counting is an important aspect of Atari 2600 programming. It makes possible the positioning of sprites, the drawing of six-digit scores, non-mirrored playfield graphics and many other cool TIA tricks that keep every game from looking like Combat.
How to Draw A Playfield by Nick Bensema
Atari 2600 programming is different from any other kind of programming in many ways. Just one of these ways is the flow of the program.
Cart Sizes and Bankswitching Methods by Kevin Horton
The "bankswitching bible." Also check out the Atari 2600 Fun Facts and Information Guide and this post about bankswitching by SeaGtGruff at AtariAge.
Atari 2600 programming specs (HTML version).
Atari 2600 Programming Page (AtariAge)
Links to useful information, tools, source code, and documentation.
Atari 2600 programming site based on Garon's "The Dig," which is now dead.
Includes interactive color charts, an NTSC/PAL color conversion tool, and Atari 2600 color compatibility tools that can help you quickly find colors that go great together.
The Atari 2600 Music and Sound Page
Adapted information and charts related to Atari 2600 music and sound.
A guide and a check list for finished carts.
A multi-platform Atari 2600 VCS emulator. It has a built-in debugger to help you with your works in progress or you can use it to study classic games. Stella finally got Atari 2600 quality sound in December of 2018. Until version 6.0, the game sounds in Stella were mostly OK, but not great. Now it's almost impossible to tell the difference between the sound effects in Stella and a real Atari 2600.
A very good emulator that can also be embedded on your own web site so people can play the games you make online. It's much better than JStella.
If assembly language seems a little too hard, don't worry. You can always try to make Atari 2600 games the faster, easier way with batari Basic.
Atari 2600 BASIC
If assembly language is too hard for you, try batari Basic. It's a BASIC-like language for creating Atari 2600 games. It's the faster, easier way to make Atari 2600 games.
Did you know that Trump's rushed Operation Warp Speed rona jab has less than one percent overall benefit? Some people call it the depopulation jab and it has many possible horrible side effects (depending on the lot number, concentration, and if it was kept cold). Remember when many Democrats were against Trump's Operation Warp Speed depopulation jab, then they quickly changed their minds when Biden flip-flopped and started pushing it?
Some brainwashed rona jab cultists claim that there are no victims of the jab, but person after person will post what the jab did to them, a friend, or a family member on web sites such as Facebook and they'll be lucky if they don't get banned soon after. Posting the truth is “misinformation” don't you know. Awakened sheep might turn into lions, so powerful people will do just about anything to keep the sheep from waking up.
Check out these videos:
If You Got the COVID Shot and Aren't Injured, This May Be Why
Thought Experiment: What Happens After the Jab?
The Truth About Polio and Vaccines
What Is Causing the Mysterious Self-Assembling Non-Organic Clots and Sudden Deaths?
Take a look at my page about the famous demonized medicines called The H Word and Beyond. You might also want to look at my page called Zinc and Quercetin. My sister and I have been taking zinc and quercetin since the summer of 2020 in the hopes that they would scare away the flu and other viruses (or at least make them less severe). Here's one more page to check out: My Sister's Experiences With COVID-19.
Some people appear to have a mental illness because they have a vitamin B deficiency. For example, the wife of a guy I used to chat with online had severe mood swings which seemed to be caused by food allergies or intolerances. She would became irrational, obnoxious, throw tantrums, and generally act like she had a mental illness. The horrid behavior stopped after she started taking a vitamin B complex. I've been taking Jarrow B-Right (#ad) for many years. It makes me much easier to live with. I wonder how many people with schizophrenia and other mental mental illnesses could be helped by taking a B complex once or twice a day with meals (depending on their weight)?
Unfermented soy is bad! “When she stopped eating soy, the mental problems went away.” Fermented soy doesn't bother me, but the various versions of unfermented soy (soy flour, soybean oil, and so on) that are used in all kinds of products these days causes a negative mental health reaction in me that a vitamin B complex can't tame. The sinister encroachment of soy has made the careful reading of ingredients a necessity.
I started taking AyaLife (99% Pure CBD oil) as needed in April of 2020. So far it's the only thing that helps my mood when I've mistakenly eaten something that contains soy. AyaLife is THC-free (non-psychoactive) and is made in the USA. I also put a couple dropper fulls under my tongue before leaving the house or if I just need to calm down.
It's supposedly common knowledge that constantly angry Antifa-types basically live on soy products. What would happen if they stopped eating and drinking soy sludge and also took a B complex every day? Would a significant number of them become less angry? Would AyaLife CBD oil also help?
If you are overweight, have type II diabetes, or are worried about the condition of your heart, check out the videos by Ken D Berry, William Davis, and Ivor Cummins. It seems that most people should avoid wheat, not just those who have a wheat allergy or celiac disease. Check out these books: Undoctored (#ad), Wheat Belly (#ad), and Eat Rich, Live Long (#ad).
Negative ions are good for us. You might want to avoid positive ion generators and ozone generators. A plain old air cleaner is better than nothing, but one that produces negative ions makes the air in a room fresher and easier for me to breathe. It also helps to brighten my mood.
Never litter. Toss it in the trash or take it home. Do not throw it on the ground. Also remember that good people clean up after themselves at home, out in public, at a campsite and so on. Leave it better than you found it.
Climate Change Cash Grab = Bad
Seems like more people than ever finally care about water, land, and air pollution, but the climate change cash grab scam is designed to put more of your money into the bank accounts of greedy politicians. Those power-hungry schemers try to trick us with bad data and lies about overpopulation while pretending to be caring do-gooders. Trying to eliminate pollution is a good thing, but the carbon footprint of the average law-abiding human right now is actually making the planet greener instead of killing it.
Eliminating farms and ranches, eating bugs, getting locked down in 15-minute cities, owning nothing, using digital currency (with expiration dates) that is tied to your social credit score, and paying higher taxes will not make things better and “save the Earth.” All that stuff is part of an agenda that has nothing to do with making the world a better place for the average person. It's all about control, depopulation, and making things better for the ultra-rich. They just want enough peasants left alive to keep things running smoothly.
Watch these two videos for more information:
Charlie Robinson had some good advice about waking up normies (see the link to the video below). He said instead of verbally unloading or being nasty or acting like a bully, ask the person a question. Being nice and asking a question will help the person actually think about the subject.
Interesting videos:
Charlie Robinson Talks About the Best Way to Wake Up Normies
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Use any example programs at your own risk. I am not responsible if they blow up your computer or melt your Atari 2600. Use assembly language at your own risk. I am not responsible if assembly language makes you cry or gives you brain damage.