Atari 2600 Programming for Newbies

Symbol Values

The answer is that the symbol must be defined somewhere in the source code (as opposed to just being referenced). Definition of a symbol can come in several forms. The most straightforward is to just assign a value…

WSYNC = 2

or…

WSYNC EQU 2

The above examples are equivalent—DASM supports syntax (style) which has become fairly standard over the years. Some people (me!) like to use the = symbol, and some like to use EQU. Note that the symbol in question must start in the very first column, when it is being defined. In both cases, the value 2 is being assigned to the symbol WSYNC. Wherever DASM encounters the symbol WSYNC in the code, it knows to use the value 2.

That's fairly straightforward stuff. But symbols can be defined in terms of other symbols! Also, DASM has a quite capable ability to understand expressions, so the following is quite valid…

AFTER_WSYNC = WSYNC + 1

In this case, the symbol 'AFTER_WSYNC' would have the value 3. Even if the WSYNC label was defined after the above code, the assembler would successfully be able to resolve the AFTER_WSYNC value, as it does multiple passes through the code until symbols are all resolved.

Automatic Symbol Values

Symbols can also be given values automatically by the assembler. Consider our sample kernel where we see the following code near the start (here we're looking at the listing file, so we can see the address information DASM outputs)…

     10  0000 ????          SEG

     11  f000           ORG  $F000

     12  f000

     13  f000       Reset

     14  f000

     15  f000

     16  f000

     17  f000

     18  f000

     19  f000

     20  f000       StartOfFrame

     21  f000

     22  f000      ; Start of vertical blank processing

     23  f000

     24  f000         a9 00        lda  #0

     25  f002         85 01        sta  VBLANK

'Reset' and 'StartOfFrame' are two symbols which are definitions at this point because they both start at the first column of the lines they are on. The assembler assigns the current ROM address to these symbols, as they occur. That is, if we look at these 'labels' (=symbols) in the symbol table, we see…

StartOfFrame             f000              (R )

Reset                    f000              (R )

They both have a value of $F000. This form of symbol (which starts at the beginning of a line, but is not explicitly assigned a value) is called a label, and refers to a location in the code (or more particularly an address). How and why did DASM assign the value $F000 to these two labels, in this case?

As the assembler converts your source code to a binary format, it keeps an internal counter telling it where in the address space the next byte is to be placed. This address increments by the appropriate amount for each bit of data it encounters. For example, if we had a 'nop' (a 1-byte instruction), then the address counter that DASM maintains would increment by 1 (the length of the nop instruction). Whenever a label is encountered, the label is given the value of the current internal address counter at the point in the binary image at which the label occurs. The label itself does not go into the binary—but the value of the label refers to the address in the binary corresponding to the position of the label in the source code.

In the above code snippet, we can see the address in column 2 of the output, and it starts at 0 (with ???? after it, indicating it doesn't actually KNOW the internal counter/address at this point), and (here's the bit I really want you to understand) it is set to $F000 when we get the 'org $F000' line. 'Org' stands for origin, and this is the way we (the programmer) indicate to the assembler the starting address of next section of code in the binary ROM. Just to complicate things slightly, it is not the actual offset from the start of the ROM (for a ROM might, for example, be only 4K but contain code assembled to live at $F000-$FFFF—as in a 4K cartridge). So it's not an offset, it's a conceptual address.

Labels

These labels are very useful to programmers to give a name to a point in code, so that point may be referred to by the label, instead of us having to know the address. If we look at the end of our sample kernel, we see…

     70  f3ea         4c 00 f0        jmp  StartOfFrame

The 'jmp' is the mnemonic for the jump instruction, which transfers flow of control to the address given in the two byte operand. In other words, it's a GOTO statement. Look carefully at the binary numbers inserted into the ROM (again, the columns are left to right, line number, address, byte(s), source code). We see $4C, 0, $f0. The opcode for JMP is $4C—whenever the 6502 fetches this instruction, it forms a 16-bit address from the next two bytes (0,$F0) and code continues from that address. Note that the 'StartOfFrame' symbol/label has a value $F000 in our symbol table.

16-Bit Numbers

It's time to understand how 16-bit numbers are formed from two 8-bit numbers, and how 0, $F0 translates to $F000. The 6502, as noted, can address 2^16 bytes of memory. This requires 16 bits. The 6502 itself is only capable of manipulating 8-bit numbers. So 16-bit numbers are stored as pairs of bytes. Consider any 16-bit address in hexadecimal—$F000 is convenient enough. The binary value for that is %1111000000000000. Divide it into two 8-bit sections (equivalent to 2 bytes) and you get %11110000 and %00000000—equivalent to $F0 and 0. Note, any two hex digits make up a byte, as hex digits require 4 bits each (0-15 or %0000-%1111). So we could just split any hex address in half to give us two 8-bit bytes. As noted, 6502 manipulates 16-bit addresses through the use of two bytes. These bytes are generally always stored in ROM in little-endian format (that is, the lowest significant byte first, followed by the high byte). So $F000 hex is stored as 0, $F0 (the low byte of $F000 followed by the high byte).

Now the binary of our jmp instruction should make sense. Opcode ($4C), 16-bit address in low/high format ($F000). When this instruction executes, the program jumps to and continues executing from address $F000 in ROM. And we can see how DASM has used its symbol table—and in particular the value it calculated from the internal address counter when the StartOfFrame label was defined—to 'fill in' the correct low/hi value into the binary file itself where the label was actually referred to.

This is typical of symbol usage. DASM uses its internal symbol table to give it a value for any symbol it needs. Those values are used to create the correct numbers for the ROM/binary image.

ORG

Let's go back to our magical discovery that the 'org' instruction is just a command to the assembler (it does not appear in the binary) to let the assembler know the value of the internal address counter at that point in the code. It is quite legal to have more than one ORG command in our source. In fact, our sample kernel uses this when it defines the interrupt vectors…

     70  f3ea         4c 00 f0        jmp  StartOfFrame

     71  f3ed

     72  f3ed

     73  fffa           ORG  $FFFA

     74  fffa

     75  fffa         00 f0        .word.w  Reset; NMI

     76  fffc         00 f0        .word.w  Reset; RESET

     77  fffe         00 f0        .word.w  Reset; IRQ

Here we can see that after the jmp instruction, the internal address counter is at $F3ED, and we have another ORG which sets the address to $FFFA (the start of the standard 6502 interrupt vector data). Astute readers will notice the use of the label 'Reset' in three lines, with the binary value $F000 (if the numbers are to be interpreted as a low/high byte pair) appearing in the ROM image at address $FFFA, $FFFC, $FFFE. We briefly discussed how the 6502 looks at the address $FFFC to give it the address at which it should start running code. Here we see that this address points to the label 'Reset'. Magic.

It's quite legal to use one symbol as the value for an ORG command. Here's a short snippet of code which should clarify this…

START = $F800; start of code - change this if you want



  ORG START

HelloWorld

In the above example, the label HelloWorld would have a value of $F800. If the value of START were to change, so would the value of HelloWorld.

We've seen how the ORG command is used to tell DASM where to place bits of code (in terms of the address of code in our ROM). This command can also be used to define our variables in RAM. We haven't had a play with RAM/variables yet, and it will be a few sessions before we tackle that—but if you want a sneak peek, have a look at vcs.h and see how it defines its variables from an origin defined as 'ORG TIA_BASE_ADDRESS'. That code is way more complex than our current level of understanding, but it gives some idea of the versatility of the assembler.

The Six Instruction Groups

The 6502 Instruction Set broken down into 6 groups.

6502 Instruction Set

Nice, simple instruction set in little boxes (not made out of ticky-tacky).

6502 Instruction Set

An easy-to-read page from The Second Book Of Machine Language.

NMOS 6502 Opcodes

By John Pickens. Updated by Bruce Clark.

Registers

Goes over each of the internal registers and their use.

Instruction Set

Gives a summary of whole instruction set.

Addressing Modes

Describes each of the 6502 memory addressing modes.

Instruction Reference

Describes the complete instruction set in detail.